US UNIVERSITIES ADMINISTRATION AND CALENDAR

Most universities and colleges are controlled by a board of trustees or a board of regents. Boards of trustees of private institutions usually elect their own members. The church body may elect the trustees of a church-related institution. The alumni association of a private institution often elects some of the trustees. The trustees of public institutions are usually appointed by the governor of the state. The voters sometimes elect the trustees or regents.

Boards of trustees or regents approve educational policies. They also appoint the chief administrative officer of the institution. In some states, coordinating committees and boards exercise supervision over those institutions financially assisted by the state.

The organization of state, province, and city-supported institutions is generally about the same as that of other universities and colleges. They usually offer about the same courses of study, although state institutions often emphasize technical and professional education more than private schools.

In most cases, a president or chancellor is the chief administrator of a university or college. Other officials handle educational programs, registration, management of funds, and collection of tuition. Each college or separate school of a university generally has an academic dean or director. He or she leads the faculty in preparing the course of study for the college or school, and takes part in university planning.

Faculty includes the teachers of a college or university. A college's faculty is divided into departments. Each department deals with one general course of study, such as English, mathematics, or physics. Each department has a chairman, who is usually a full professor. Under the chairman are other professors, associate professors, assistant professors, and instructors. Some departments also have teaching fellows or research fellows. These are graduate students who teach or do research part-time. Their research is supported by the institution or by funds granted the institution by individuals or groups having specific research interests. The institutions do much research under contract with the federal government.

The student body of a university or college is divided into graduates and undergraduates. Graduates have already received their bachelor's degree and are working more or less independently for a master's or doctor's degree. Undergraduates are studying for their bachelor's degree. The undergraduates belong to one of four classes – freshman, sophomore, junior, and senior – according to year of study. Most schools also admit students, who take a number of courses, but do not work toward a degree.

Most institutions are co-educational, with both men and women students. Others admit students of only one sex. A coordinate institution generally has separate men's and women's colleges. They are controlled by the same central authority and are usually located on the same or nearby campuses.

The calendar is the program of a school year. It is divided according to one of three systems. The most common system divides the calendar into two semesters of about 16 weeks each. The first semester begins in August or September. The second semester begins in January or early February. The school year ends in May or June with commencement, or graduation exercises. Many schools also hold a six- to eight-week summer session. By attending school all year, students may graduate in three years instead of four.

In the quarter system, the year is divided into four quarters of 10, 11, or 12 weeks each. The first quarter begins in the fall. Winter holidays come between the first and second quarters, and spring holidays between the second and third. Many students do not attend the fourth, or summer, quarter. The trimester system divides the year into three trimesters of about 15 weeks each.

US institutions offer a wide variety of subjects (or majors, as they are called) to study, everything from the fine and liberal arts to practical, career-oriented fields such as engineering and marketing. The courses given by a college or university are called the school's curriculum. The catalog of the institution outlines the complete curriculum. It gives the requirements for taking each course, as well as the credits given. Each course is designated as giving a specified number of credits. These usually equal the number of class hours devoted each week to the course. For example, a course that meets three times a week usually gives three credits for graduation. Schools using the semester calendar require about 120 credits for graduation. Between 30 and 40 of the required credits must be earned in the student's major subject.

Institutions vary considerably in the amount of freedom given students in selecting their courses. Almost all colleges and universities have a certain number of required subjects. Students usually can also choose non-required courses called electives. Liberal arts colleges usually give a student more opportunity to choose courses than do professional schools.

When college freshmen register, they usually indicate the major subject they want to study. Some students may take high-school level remedial courses before they enroll in freshman level courses. During the first two years of college, students take largely the basic required courses, such as English composition. The last two years are devoted mostly to the student's major. Many schools permit a student to have two majors.

The programs of study provided by universities and colleges are divided into undergraduate and graduate levels. Most colleges offer few, if any, graduate programs. Undergraduate programs usually require four years to complete. Some engineering programs and most architectural programs require five years. Undergraduate study may be in the arts and sciences, or in a discipline such as English, economics, or chemistry. Undergraduate programs may also be given in a professional field such as agriculture, teacher education, or business administration.

Graduate study may also be in the arts and sciences, or in a profession. It ordinarily begins only after a person has completed undergraduate study. Some professional fields will only admit a student who has completed undergraduate study. This is generally true of medicine, law, dentistry, and theology. Graduate study is more intensive and specialized than undergraduate study. It usually involves more reading and some research experience. The time required to earn a graduate degree is usually three years in law and theology and four years in medicine. But some graduate programs may be completed in one or two years.

Most classes are lecture or discussion groups. In larger institutions, lectures may be given to hundreds of students at a time, sometimes with the help of closed-circuit television. Discussion groups, or seminars, are much smaller. Students often work on individual projects outside of class and report on them to the group.

Many universities and colleges offer courses known as individualized-study or self-directed courses. Such courses have no formal classroom sessions. Students work independently on assignments outlined by course materials. They complete the work at their own pace, under the guidance of a faculty member. In this kind of course, the student may use computers, individually assigned laboratory booths, and other learning aids.

Most grades are given in the form of a number or letter. The most common numerical system uses percentages, with 100 as the highest mark and 65 or 70 as the lowest passing grade. The most widely used system of letter grades consists of the letters A, B, C, D, and E or F. The grade of A represents the highest achievement, and E or F means failure. Some schools use the numbers 4 for A, 3 for B, 2 for C, 1 for D, and O for E or F. Another system consists of the letters P (for pass) and F (for fail). Some schools use the letters O (outstanding), S (satisfactory), and NI (needs improvement).

The college instructor tries to do more than merely hand the student facts to memorize. It is far more important to develop the student's ability to find information and to learn to think intelligently. For this reason, the instructor strives to direct the student in independent study and research by recommending books for outside reading and by suggesting new avenues of study in a certain field. Students in the sciences and engineering use laboratories, some of which are directed by world-famous scientists. In them they have made many important discoveries, often with the help of graduate students. For example, much of the original work on the use of atomic energy was done in the laboratories of the University of Chicago and the University of California.

College freshmen find they have much more time to do as they choose than they had in high school. Classes generally take up only about 15 hours each week, although there may be additional hours of laboratory work. The rest of the time between classes is free for study or recreation. College life gives students a welcome measure of independence. But students should realize that new responsibilities go with this independence. They must balance hard work with recreation, allow enough time and energy for social activities, and learn to use to the best advantage the opportunities their school offers.

Extracurricular activities outside the normal routine of classes and study help develop the student's personality, and provide a proper balance for the daily routine. Athletics are one of many possible activities. Students may also work on the staffs of school newspapers and magazines. They may take part in such activities as dramatics, music, debating, and student government.

Student government is an activity in which students take part in the government of their school, college, or university. This activity usually takes place through a student organization, often called a student council. The organization may also be called a student cabinet, student congress, student legislature, or G.O. (general organization). Most high schools, colleges, and universities have some form of student government.

Students elect representatives to the council or governing board. The council or governing board may meet with the faculty and administration to discuss curriculum, student benefits, and other matters of interest to the students. A faculty member may serve as sponsor or adviser.

Student government activities include sponsoring scholarship and award programs; coordinating student activities; and organizing assembly programs, conferences, lectures, and other cultural events. In addition, student governments have fought for students' rights, including an end to racial and sexual discrimination in college admissions. Student governments may sponsor student courts, conduct work projects and faculty evaluations, and help manage such student services as cafeterias and health centers. A student government also may organize community projects and travel programs.

4.b Explain the following concepts from the text.

US ACADEMIC DEGREES

A university or college awards a degree to a person who has completed a required course of study. The institution presents the degree in the form of a diploma, a document certifying the award. The four basic kinds of degrees are called associate, bachelor, master, and doctor. An honorary degree may be awarded for an outstanding contribution in a field.

The A.A./A.S. degree or Associate's Degreeis awarded by many U.S. colleges and universities and most community, or junior, colleges. An associate degree usually indicates completion of two years of college work. The most commonly awarded associate degrees are the Associate in Arts and the Associate in Science.

In the United States, a college student normally receives a bachelor's degree after four years of study in a university or college. There are many kinds of bachelor's degrees, but the two most common are the Bachelor of Arts (B.A.) and the Bachelor of Science (B.S.). The B.A. usually includes majors in such subjects as history, literature, and fine arts, and, in certain cases, science and mathematics. The B.S. usually includes majors in the physical and natural sciences. Most engineering students receive B.S. degrees. Many colleges offer specialized degrees, such as the Bachelor of Education or Bachelor of Architecture. Outstanding achievement in a bachelor's degree may be designated by the Latin phrases cum laude (with praise), magna cum laude (with great praise), or summa cum laude (with the highest praise).

In the United States, students who desire a master's degree must complete one or two years of advanced study beyond the bachelor's degree. Many institutions require a thesis, a written report of a special investigation in the student's major field. The two most common master's degrees are the Master of Arts and the Master of Science.

The doctor's degree is the highest earned degree in the United States, France, Germany, and many other countries. In the United States, the research doctorate requires at least two or three additional years of study beyond the master's degree. Most doctoral students are expected to have a reading knowledge in two foreign languages. The candidate must also complete examinations and present a written thesis or dissertation. The doctoral thesis represents an original contribution to knowledge, and is a more detailed study of a research problem than that required for the master's degree.

The Doctor of Philosophy degree is the most important research doctorate and may include specialization in almost any academic subject. The Doctor of Education, Doctor of Medicine, and Doctor of Dental Surgery degrees represent advanced professional training.

Schools and colleges usually award a diploma or certificate in recognition of achievement to students who satisfactorily complete a regular course. Most institutions present their diplomas at special ceremonies, called graduation exercises.

Graduation exercises were first held by European universities of the Middle Ages. American educational institutions still have many of the European graduation customs. Usually there are two special graduation ceremonies –baccalaureate and commencement. The baccalaureate service is a religious service, usually held on the Sunday before commencement. The diplomas are given out in the commencement exercise.

In most colleges, graduates wear academic gowns and caps to the ceremonies. By tradition, gowns are long and black. The tasseled, flat black caps are called mortarboards. Both cap and gown are patterned after European academic dress. The color of the tassel shows the kind of degree the graduate is receiving. Graduates may wear colored hoods on their backs to show the highest degree they already hold, and the institution which conferred it. In some colleges, they wear colored caps and gowns as well as hoods.

5.b Explain the following concepts from the text.

1. 5.c Answer the following questions using the information from the text.

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