Помощничек
Главная | Обратная связь


Археология
Архитектура
Астрономия
Аудит
Биология
Ботаника
Бухгалтерский учёт
Войное дело
Генетика
География
Геология
Дизайн
Искусство
История
Кино
Кулинария
Культура
Литература
Математика
Медицина
Металлургия
Мифология
Музыка
Психология
Религия
Спорт
Строительство
Техника
Транспорт
Туризм
Усадьба
Физика
Фотография
Химия
Экология
Электричество
Электроника
Энергетика

HOW INFLUENCE IS EXERCISED



Social scientists have noted several fundamental techniques that individuals and groups use to influence each other. In a political system that contains no one legitimate center of authority that can command the members of the group or society, bargaining has to be used among the sovereign entities to achieve or defend their objectives. Recalling that A seeks one of three courses of conduct from В (В to do X in the future, В not to do X in the future, or В to continue doing X), it may use six different tactics, involving acts of:

1. Persuasion. By persuasion we mean simply initiating or discussing a proposal with another and eliciting a favorable response without explicitly holding out the possibility of rewards or punishments. We cannot assume that the exercise of influence is always against the wishes of others and that there are only two possible outcomes of the act, one favoring A, the other favoring

156 Foreign-Policy Actions: Power, Capability, and Influence

B. For example, state A asks В to support it at a coming international conference on the control of narcotics. State В might not originally have any particular interest in the conference or its outcome; but it decides, on the basis of A's initiative, that something positive might be gained, not only by supporting A's proposals, but also by attending the conference. In this case, В might also expect to gain some type of reward in the future, although not necessarily from A. Persuasion would also include protests and denials that do not involve obvious threats.

2. The Offer of Rewards.This is the situation where A promises to do something favorable to В if В complies with the wishes of A. Rewards may be of almost any type in international relations. To gain the diplomatic support of В at the narcotics conference, A may offer to increase foreign-aid payments, lower tariffs on goods imported from B, support В at a later conference on communications facilities, or promise to remove a previous punishment. The last tactic is used often by negotiators. After having created an unfavorable situation, they promise to remove it in return for some concessions by their opponents.

3. The Granting of Rewards. Insome instances, the credibility of a government is not very high, and state B, before complying with A's wishes, may insist that A actually give the reward in advance. Frequently, in armistice negotiations, neither side will unilaterally take steps to demilitarize an area or demobilize troops until the other shows evidence of complying with the agree­ments. One of the cliches of cold-war diplomacy holds that deeds, not words, are required for the granting of rewards and concessions.

4. The Threat of Punishment.Threats of punishment may be further subdivided into two types: (a) positive threats, where, for example, state A threat­ens to increase tariffs, institute a boycott or embargo against trade with B, or use force; and (b) threats of deprivation, where A threatens to withdraw foreign aid or in other ways withhold rewards or other advantages that it already grants to B.

5. The Infliction of Nonviolent Punishment. Inthis situation, threats are carried out in the hope of altering B's behavior, which, in most cases, could not be altered by other means. The problem with this tactic is that it often results in reciprocal measures by the other side, thus inflicting damage on both, and not necessarily bringing about a desired state of affairs. If, for example, A threatens to increase its military capabilities if В does X and then proceeds to implement the threat, it is not often that В will comply with A's wishes, because it, too, can increase its military capabilities. In this type of situation, both sides indulge in the application of punishments that may escalate into more serious forms unless the conflict is resolved. Typical acts of nonviolent

157 Foreign-Policy Actions: Power, Capability, and Influence

 

punishment include breaking diplomatic relations, raising tariffs, instituting boy­cotts and embargoes, holding hostages, organizing blockades, closing frontiers, or walking out of a diplomatic conference.

6. Force. In previous eras, when governments did not possess the variety of foreign-policy instruments available today, they frequently had to rely upon the use of force in the bargaining process. Force and violence were not only the most efficient tactics, but in many cases the only means possible for influencing. Today, the situation is different. As technological levels rise and dependencies develop, other means of inducement become available and can serve as substitutes for force.11

PATTERNS OF INFLUENCE

 




Поиск по сайту:

©2015-2020 studopedya.ru Все права принадлежат авторам размещенных материалов.